Moore, Chapter 6

In Chapter 6, Moore discusses discussion, but also presents heuristic teaching methods. In his discussion of discussion, Moore explores whole-class discussion and small group discussion. Discussion can be effective in achieving deeper understanding. A successful whole-class discussions has students talking more than the teacher, and is a “carefully structured exchange of ideas directed towards a specific goal.” According to Moore, whole class discussions are most effective in achieving two purposes: exploring questions that pose no simple answers and “situations in which issues from the affective domain are being addressed” (have no idea what this means). Moore encourages appointing student leaders who should not dominate the discussion, but rather make sure that: 1) everyone understands the purpose and topic; 2) keeps discussion moving and on track through methods such as questioning; 3) encourages equal participation; 4) summarizes key points. Open communication and support are the key to whole-group discussions. Moore also discusses various small-group discussion formats such as brainstorming, buzz group, task group, and panels. In can be difficult to keep students on task in these formats however, so it is important to stress expectations and procedures. Small group discussions enhance communication skills, leadership abilities, open-mindedness, persuasive arguing.

Moore discusses problem solving, discovery learning, inquiry learning, and systematic problem solving in his section on heuristic teaching methods. Heuristic teaching methods actively involve students in the problem solving process. Discovery learning and inquiry learning differentiate in the focus on the end conclusion. While both methods place the student at the center of the learning process, discovery places a greater emphasis on the arrival at a specific conclusion whereas inquiry stresses the process rather than the end conclusion. The benefits of inquiry learning are impressive: according to Moore, it encourages creative solutions to problems and investigations can be as “original and limitless as students’ imaginations;” it “stimulates interest and urges students to solve problems to the very limits of their abilities;” and self confidence is enhanced as students are not penalized for a lack of content knowledge.

I was far more intrigued reading about the indirect teaching methods than direct teaching methods. As Moore states, “two major function of education are the development of students’ ability to think critically and the development of their ability to perform independent inquiry.” Indirect approaches prove to be more successful in targeting these outcomes. They focus on skills that will be useful for a lifetime. Further, they encourage creativity amongst students. I am a strong advocate of the teaching approaches Moore presents in Chapter 6, particularly inquiry.

Moore, Chapter 5 (Another Baseball Analogy)

In Chapter 5, Moore presents the direct teaching method and the “Art of Questioning.” In the direct teaching method, Moore presents a discussion on exposition teaching, which is the “best way to communicate large amounts of information in a short period of time.” The most popular exposition teaching method is the lecture, which is a time efficient way of teaching concepts but is also a passive method of learning for students. Moore points out that the most effective lectures are relatively short, as it is difficult for students to focus on a lecture for more than 20 minutes. To make lectures more engaging, he recommends using variety – balancing the lecture by showing a movie clip, etc. Moore than goes into a thorough discussion on the power of questioning as a learning device. He discusses convergent questions, which initiate more focused answers and divergent questions, where the answers are open-ended. He then contrasts factual, empirical, productive, and evaluative questions, which trigger different levels of thinking from students.

I personally enjoyed the portion of the chapter on the art of questioning. The clear outline of different types of questions will be helpful in my classroom as I will be more aware of my questioning techniques. I agree with Moore in that questioning is an art as it takes refinement and a delicate touch, but has the potential to be so effective if mastered. I also found it interesting that lecturing is such a popular teaching method despite its flaws. To make another baseball analogy, the direct teaching method could be compared to the hitting coach who is an advocate of one specific kind of swing, and tailors his hitters to one uniform swing. On the other hand, indirect teaching could be compared to the hitting coach who analyzes each swing individually and adjusts swings based on individual abilities and tendencies. I will have to read the next chapter to see if I still agree with this comparison.

Thompson, Carla J. (2009). Preparation, practice, and performance: An empirical examination of the impact of Standards-based instruction on secondary students’ math and science achievement. Research in Education, 81, 53-62.

This study implements a three-stage model to analyze the effects of standards-based instruction (SBI) on student learning. Standards-based instruction strategies, as defined by Thompson, include “student self-assessment, inquiry-based activities, group-based projects, hands-on experiences, use of computer technologies, and the use of calculators.” The three-stage model – preparation, practice, and performance – is broken down as follows: preparation includes teacher professional development activities, practice is the classroom implementation of these trainings, and performance is the student outcomes which are Iowa Test of Basic Skills scores. Using data collected from the Oklahoma City public school district for the 2000-01 and 2001-02 school years, Thompson finds evidence that suggests SBI practices are significantly more effective on student learning than non-SBI practices. Using this model, Thompson found that standards-based practices such as inquiry, problem solving, co-operative learning, and use of hands on technology were all significant contributors. Non-SBI practices (lecture, independent seat work, quizzes, and text homework) were found to be ineffective in achieving student growth.

This article suggests that non-SBI practices (which currently dominate classrooms) need to be re-examined as they are ineffective in achieving significant academic gains. This is an alarming finding as a significant number of classrooms are non-SBI (47% of classrooms in the study, for instance, were found to be non-SBI classrooms). The data would suggest that nearly half of all classrooms are ineffective in achieving student growth. As the study states, however, there is a lack of empirical evidence on SBI practices and student growth and I would be interested in seeing the study across other states and regions to strengthen the evidence. In the mean time, I will be careful to consider SBI practices as I lesson plan.

Lemke, Robert J., Hoerandner, Claus M., & McMahon, Robert E. (2006). Student Assessments, Non-test Takers, and School Accountability. Education Economics, 14 (2), 235-250.

Lemke, et al. use statewide data from Illinois to examine the implications of using student test scores to evaluate public schools. Under the No Child Left Behind Act of 2002, heavy rewards and consequences are placed on students meeting or exceeding state standards. As a result, teachers and administrators have incentive to do whatever is necessary to achieve qualifying test scores. Because the law only requires schools to test 95% of their student population, there is room for schools to possibly game the system to achieve higher test scores.

Using a sample of 573 high schools from the state of Illinois, Lemke, et al. find evidence that accurate comparisons cannot be made across schools if only 95% of the students are required to take the test. Depending on the abilities of the 5% of student who do not take the test, there is too much room for variance and schools can potentially be assessed as passing when they are actually below state standards. According to Lemke, et al., for instance, 22% of all schools in their study could be mistakenly labeled as passing state standards if they were to take full advantage of the NCLB law.

This issue can be compared to the steroid problem in Major League Baseball. When the end product (examinations in schools; money or victories in baseball) has such great weight, there is incentive to cut corners to achieve the end result. The means are sacrificed for the ends. As found in this study, NCLB unintentionally results in schools encouraging students to be disabled learners, ease dropout rules, hold students back to postpone testing, teach to the test and sacrifice depth of analysis, etc. Much is sacrificed when the examination is the only point of focus.