Gender Equity

Sadker, David. “Gender Equity: Still Knocking at the Classroom Door.” Educational Leadership, 56, (2009).

In this piece, Sadker presents his view that while we have made significant progress with gender equity, the job is not finished and subtle gender biases still exist. He develops his argument with ten “updates” on gender equity: #10 – segregation still thrives in American schools; #9 – public school are now creating single gender classes and schools; #8 – gender related safety and health concerns continue to plague females; #7 – the dropout rate is not what we think it is; #6 – for girls, gifted programs are often “early in and early out;” #5 – more needs to be done to understand and eliminate the gender bias that impacts males; #4 – classroom interactions between teachers and students put males in the spotlight, and relegate females to the sidelines; #3 – the math and science gender gap is getting smaller; #2 – don’t look now, but there is a new gender gap in technology; #1 – political forces are intent on reversing many of the gains in educational equity made during the past decade.

I found some of Sadker’s assertions to be nitpicky, and would need to see his arguments backed by hard evidence. For instance, the fact that females and males tend to major in different areas doesn’t necessarily suggest that there is bias occurring. Males and females could likely have different interests, which poses no problem. I believe that females and males should have equal opportunities, but I don’t think that females and males should become one homogenous breed. Females and males inherently have differences. The different energies are what create a balance.

Cold....Hard....Facts....That Contribute to the Positive Collection of Literature on the Harlem Children's Zone

Dobbie, Will and Roland G. Fryer, Jr. “Are High-Quality Schools Enough to Close the Achievement Gap? Evidence from a Bold Social Experiment in Harlem.” Harvard University, (2009).

This paper is an econometric analysis of the Harlem Children’s Zone (HCZ), a 97-block area in central Harlem, New York. The HCZ “combines reform-minded charter schools with a web of community services created for children from birth to college graduation that are designed to ensure the social environment outside of school is positive and supportive. Examples of these services are: Baby College, a parenting workshop for expecting parents and those raising infants; Harlem Gems, an all day pre-kindergarten program that, among other things, prepares children with social skills to make a smooth transition into kindergarten; Harlem Peacemakers, partially funded by AmeriCorps, this program “trains young people who are committed to making their neighborhoods safe for children families,” and a whole “web” of other programs meant to block all hardships that inner city, poverty children face. The evidence suggests the HCZ is “enormously successful at boosting achievement in math and ELA in elementary school and math in middle school.” Students in middle school did not report a significant gain in ELA achievement, possibly because “language and vocabulary skills may develop early in life…” The study concludes that “high-quality schools or community investments coupled with high-quality schools drive these results, but community investments alone cannot.”

The Harlem Children’s Zone continues to fascinate and impress me, and this paper only supports my interest. Geoffrey Canada’s creation managed to catch President Obama’s attention as well, as he pledged to model 20 communities around the nation after the HCZ. As the paper concludes, it seems to be the blanket of resources Mr. Canada has created for children in Harlem that explains the success. It takes a full-fledged approach to break the effects of poverty, and Canada’s model is proving to be a successful answer. One would think that the results will only improve, as students grow older in the Zone and the Zone leverages more resources. The question becomes: how can we model this system in a cheaper, more cost-effective way? This is a challenge we can take on and attempt to implement on the Leeward Coast, in the beautiful city of Waianae.

No Child Left Behind

Gay, Geneva. “The Rhetoric and Reality of NCLB.” Race Ethnicity and Education, 10.3 (2007): 279 – 293.

In this article, Geneva Gay presents a multifaceted attack on No Child Left Behind. No Child Left Behind, considered the most significant educational policy ever implemented by federal government, was instituted with the purpose of ensuring excellent education regardless of race, ethnicity, or intellectual ability. However, as Gay lays out in this article, NCLB has failed to achieve what it set out to do. Diversity and the development of the well-rounded child is sacrificed, as teachers are forced to constrict lessons to the standardized tests. Teachers have less freedom to use imagination in the classroom, as “many feel too burdened down and consumed by the demands of NCLB to do anything but teach to the tests.” Lastly, studies by psychologists and psychiatrists have shown that high stakes testing induces stress among elementary-aged students, leading to psycho-emotional problems such as “anger, hostility, boredom, sadness and alienation.” So, as Gay puts it:

the rhetoric of NCLB is enticing but its realities are frightening. It is fueling that which it claims to be destroying—that is, disparities in high-quality educational opportunities and achievement outcomes for diverse students.

As a teacher at a charter school facing restructuring if we do not meet AYP, I feel the influences of NCLB on a daily basis. Our extended learning time (ELT) is filled with longer blocks for reading and math – the content that will be on the standardized tests this spring. A high level of pressure is placed upon everyone from administrators to students, as there is almost a “do or die” atmosphere that has been created. What disturbs me about the policy is that it plays such an extreme influence in our classrooms, yet there seem to be clear flaws. At a school such as mine that did not meet AYP last year, it is unrealistic to think that students can on average progress multiple grade levels in one year. It seems that a better measure of a school trajectory would be the overall progress students made in the past year, rather than a count of how many students met proficiency levels. As Gay lays out in this article, there clearly are many flaws in NCLB and in my opinion, such a flawed policy should not play such a large influence in the education of our nations children.

The Negotiated Project Approach

Mitchell, Sascha, Teresa Foulger, Keith Wetzel, and Chris Rathkey. "The Negotiated Project Approach: Project-Based Learning without Leaving the Standards Behind." Early Childhood Education (2009): 339-46. EbscoHost. Web. 4 Nov. 2008.

This is a case study conducted in a 1^st grade classroom exploring how a teacher can collaboratively plan a project with students while at the same time incorporating grade-level standards. The study focuses on the project approach to learning, which in this article is defined as “in-depth investigations that involve students in design and investigative activities and that culminate in a final product or debriefing event.” Research has shown that the benefits of this type of learning include higher order thinking skills, increased ownership and interest in learning, and increased self-esteem. Challenges with the project-based approach include lack of structure and difficulty incorporating grade-level standards into projects. In this study, the teacher is effectively able to allow students to select their own projects, while at the same time incorporating grade-level standards. This is what is referred to in the article as the “Negotiated Project Approach,” where the teacher “integrates the standards into the children’s interests, rather than vice versa.”

I’m quite fond of the teaching strategies Ms. Rathkey implemented in this study. As a student, I would enjoy being in this class because I would have so much say in what I was learning. I would be more invested in my learning. Ms. Rathkey clearly demonstrates why she is an “exemplar” teacher with her ability to “manipulate the standards, not he children.” This is a teaching strategy that I hope to improve on and be able to implement effectively in my classroom.

Curriculum Development

Liu, Woon C., C.K. J. Wang, Oon S. Tan, Caroline Koh, and Jessie EE. "A self-determination approach to understanding students' motivation in project work." Elsevier (2008): 139-45. EbscoHost. Web. 4 Nov. 2008

This study examines the effects of project work amongst students in Singapore. The purpose of the study is threefold: first, it examines student motivation in project work; second, it considers learned emotions and skills in project work; and lastly, it examines the change in student’s perceptions of project work over time. The study uses a sample of seven hundred sixty 7^th grade students from five different government schools in Singapore. Students are grouped into 4 clusters based on intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. In general, the findings show that the “high self-determined/low controlled” group had the most effective experience with project work, followed by the “high self-determined/high controlled,” “low self-determined/low controlled,” and “low self-determined/high controlled” groups, respectively. This suggests project work is most successful amongst students with intrinsic or autonomous motivation.

The findings in this study are consistent with what I have observed amongst my students. The students who come into my class motivated to learn clearly have a more meaningful experience in the classroom. The difficulty (and what this study does not address) is HOW to intrinsically motivate students successfully. One thing that could be interpreted from this study is that for project work, intrinsically motivated students are crucial for the success of the project. I tend to agree with this assertion, as the open-ended nature of project work requires a more motivated student. I’ve found in my remedial math class that highly structured activities are more successful that open-ended ones.

Unconscious Bias and Unintentional Racism

Moule, Jean. “Understanding Unconscious Bias and Unintentional Racism.” Phi Delta Kappan, 90.5 (2008): 320 – 326.

In this article, Moule discusses the effects of a term she coins “blink of the eye” racism. “Blink of the eye” racism, according to Moule, is the unconscious biases that are “usually invisible even and especially to those who perpetrate it.” While these thought processes may go unnoticed, they influence ones interactions with those groups who the stereotypes are held towards. One study showed that these unconscious biases affected the ability of individuals to work together. As Moule states, “if we mask our true attitudes, sometimes invisible to our own selves, we will continue to work slowly or unproductively.” For this reason, Moule suggests that it is important to first become aware of these biases, which will then allow for changing attitudes. To unpack these unconscious mindsets, Moule states that individuals need to “become less focused on feeling very tolerant and good about themselves and more focused on examining their own biases.”

An important point in this article is that because of human instinct, some of these personal biases are going to occur regardless of if we want them to or not. We are programmed to discern who is enemy and who is friend, for the ability to recognize friend or foe may be a matter of life or death (Begley 2004). Moreover, as Moule mentions, the societal norm is that good people are not biased or discriminatory. For these reasons, personal biases are often blocked out or left unspoken. The important take away for me from this article is that the way to overcome these biases is to acknowledge them openly and honestly. Therefore while it may be an uncomfortable issue for many, the most effective way to deal with these biases in the classroom is to find a way to safely address the issues and grow from them.

Varieties of Multicultural Education: An Introduction

Burnett, Gary. “Varieties of Multicultural Education: An Introduction.” ERIC Clearinghouse on Urban Education. (1994)

In Varieties of Multicultural Education, Burnett discusses the current state of multicultural education, and the increased attention it has received in recent years. He goes onto frame multicultural education into three typologies. The first typology, content-oriented programs, focus on including content about different cultural groups as part of the curriculum. The second typology, labeled student-oriented programs, are programs that aim to “help culturally or linguistically different students make the transition into the educational mainstream.” The last typology, socially-oriented programs, aims to increase “cultural and racial tolerance and reduc[e] bias.”

As a middle school teacher with students of many races from a variety of different backgrounds, the importance of multicultural education and cultural awareness is quite evident. Students are at a vulnerable stage, where they are developing their identities and feeling out what is socially appropriate. Schools are a place where students are introduced to cultural differences, and it is therefore important for these issues to be addressed in the classroom setting. I think that all three of the categories that Burnett outlines in this article are important to include in the classroom, as they all increase cultural understanding and enhance learning for students with different backgrounds.

Chapter 11 - Teaching Models

In Chapter 11, the author summarizes eight different models of teaching. Models of teaching differ from patterns of teaching (lecture, recitation, direct) in that they serve two purposes: “the teaching of content and the teaching of a particular kind of thinking.” Models of teaching are not intended to be more effective in planting content into students’ minds; they are intended to teach different learning processes. As the author states, “almost any model can be used to teach a given piece of content; although the information learned may be the same, the intellectual experience for students will be different.”

The models of teaching discussed in this chapter stem from four “families” of teaching models: information processing, social family, personal family, and behavioral family. The advanced organizer model (information processing family), teaches basic and fundamental concepts in a progressive manner. This model promotes a “meaningful assimilation of information” where the students builds on previous knowledge. Concept attainment (information processing family) is a model of teaching where the teacher guides learning, and students arrive at a conclusion inductively. Inductive thinking is even less guided than concept attainment, and student thinking is valued over anything else. In inquiry training, students are expected to work together and use previous knowledge to solve problems. The goal is for students to test out their own knowledge. The awareness training model is focused bridging the “individual’s own experience with experiences of other people.” This model develops the students ability to express themselves. The synectics model is a group experience that focus’ on personal knowledge and the ability to make connections. Nondirective teaching is a personal learning experience that achieves personal development and the ability to organize and plan. Lastly, group investigation is about working through the problem solving process with a group to build teamwork skills and the awareness of others.

In reading through this chapter, it becomes apparent that I use few models effectively in my classroom. I would say that the majority of my lessons are implemented through direct instruction, which suggests that I am not developing many “thinking” skills amongst my students. (I do have them develop their own notes in groups from the reading on many days – I’m not sure where this fits). My focus will now be on implementing different models in my daily lessons that adapt to the learning styles in my class.

Confronting Ableism

Hehir, Thomas. “Confronting Ableism.” Educational Leadership 64.5 (2007): 8-14.

In “Confronting Ableism,” Thomas Hehir examines instruction for students with learning needs. He asserts that ableism, a term he defines as “society’s pervasive negative attitude about disability,” makes the world inaccessible for those with learning disabilities, and slows their development. He argues that too much of the focus in special education is spent trying to “cure” the disability, when the main focus should be on catering to special need students to help them learn the academic material. The purpose of special education, according to Hehir, is “minimizing the impact of disability and maximizing the opportunities for students with disabilities to participate in schooling and the community.” He claims while major strides have been made in the current system, educators will need to recognize and challenge ableist assumptions for the system to continue to progress.

I think Hehir frames the purpose of special education quite well. Special education is about accurately and thoroughly identifying the disability, then minimizing the impact of the disability so that the individual can live as full and rich of a life as possible. There is, however, truth to ableist assumptions. I don’t think anyone (able or disabled) would deny the fact that it is preferable to be healthy and fully functional. Ableism is not the problem. The problem arises when the response to ableism is to focus all attention on curing the disability, rather than making the best of the disability and allowing students to focus on the relevant academic material.levant material.

Cultural Capital

Reay, Diane. "Education and Cultural Capital: The Implications of Changing Trends in Educational Policies." Cultural Trends, 13 (2004): pp. 73-86.

“Education and Cultural Capital: The Implications of Changing Trends in Educational Policy” examines the influences and implications of a non-monetary kind of capital. Cultural capital, as defined by Reay, includes “educational qualifications and participation in high status activities,” but also more subjective qualities such as confidence, assertiveness, and aggression when dealing with teachers and the support of students. Part 1 centers on the changes in educational policy which have increased the role of the parent in the educational process. In Part 2, Reay discusses how cultural capital influences parent-teacher interactions. In the study, middle-class mothers are more confident and assertive than working-class mothers in their interactions with teachers, and are therefore more influential in the direction of their child’s education. In essence, cultural capital allows the middle-class mothers to take a more active role in their student’s education than that of working-class mothers. Part 3 examines the liberties that economic and cultural capital provide in a child’s education. Economic and cultural capital allows parents to be far more selective and influential in the education process, giving them liberty to move into different school districts, out of the state-system into private education, or into a selective school.

I found the case of Yussef and Navid to be of particular interest. Yussef and Navid are both immigrants who “may have access to little economic capital, but they maintain a strong sense of entitlement and academic confidence, the legacy, it is suggested, of their parents’ cultural capital.” These two cases demonstrate the power of cultural capital to break class boundaries. The expectations and support of these parents allowed the students to succeed in an accelerated environment predominately made up of middle-class students. Although these were rare cases, it is important in demonstrating the effects of high parental expectations and support.

Teaching to ELL Students

Joseph, Furner M. "Teach Mathematics: Strategies to Reach All Students." Intervention in School and Clinic41.1 (2005):

In 20 Ways to Teach Mathematics: Strategies to Reach All Students¸ Furner et. al provide 20 strategies for reaching all students and ensuring equity in mathematics. As stated by The NCTM, “equity requires accommodating differences to help everyone learn mathematics.” Several of the strategies are geared towards ELL students. Furner et. al recommend allowing ELL students to use drawing and symbols in solving math problems, pairing ELL students with typical students (peer interaction), explaining directions clearly and repeating key terms, and grouping students heterogeneously so that ELL students gain models of language development.

I found some of the strategies presented in the article quite useful. Mathematics can be so foreign to some individuals, and many of the strategies in this article make math concepts concrete for students. For instance, using “prior knowledge and background,” “applying problems to daily situations,” and “encouraging drawings to translate and visualize word problems,” are all strategies that I have recently found success with (particularly with my remedial students). Using these types of strategies has helped with investment, management, and overall success in my classroom.

Moore, Chapter 6

In Chapter 6, Moore discusses discussion, but also presents heuristic teaching methods. In his discussion of discussion, Moore explores whole-class discussion and small group discussion. Discussion can be effective in achieving deeper understanding. A successful whole-class discussions has students talking more than the teacher, and is a “carefully structured exchange of ideas directed towards a specific goal.” According to Moore, whole class discussions are most effective in achieving two purposes: exploring questions that pose no simple answers and “situations in which issues from the affective domain are being addressed” (have no idea what this means). Moore encourages appointing student leaders who should not dominate the discussion, but rather make sure that: 1) everyone understands the purpose and topic; 2) keeps discussion moving and on track through methods such as questioning; 3) encourages equal participation; 4) summarizes key points. Open communication and support are the key to whole-group discussions. Moore also discusses various small-group discussion formats such as brainstorming, buzz group, task group, and panels. In can be difficult to keep students on task in these formats however, so it is important to stress expectations and procedures. Small group discussions enhance communication skills, leadership abilities, open-mindedness, persuasive arguing.

Moore discusses problem solving, discovery learning, inquiry learning, and systematic problem solving in his section on heuristic teaching methods. Heuristic teaching methods actively involve students in the problem solving process. Discovery learning and inquiry learning differentiate in the focus on the end conclusion. While both methods place the student at the center of the learning process, discovery places a greater emphasis on the arrival at a specific conclusion whereas inquiry stresses the process rather than the end conclusion. The benefits of inquiry learning are impressive: according to Moore, it encourages creative solutions to problems and investigations can be as “original and limitless as students’ imaginations;” it “stimulates interest and urges students to solve problems to the very limits of their abilities;” and self confidence is enhanced as students are not penalized for a lack of content knowledge.

I was far more intrigued reading about the indirect teaching methods than direct teaching methods. As Moore states, “two major function of education are the development of students’ ability to think critically and the development of their ability to perform independent inquiry.” Indirect approaches prove to be more successful in targeting these outcomes. They focus on skills that will be useful for a lifetime. Further, they encourage creativity amongst students. I am a strong advocate of the teaching approaches Moore presents in Chapter 6, particularly inquiry.

Moore, Chapter 5 (Another Baseball Analogy)

In Chapter 5, Moore presents the direct teaching method and the “Art of Questioning.” In the direct teaching method, Moore presents a discussion on exposition teaching, which is the “best way to communicate large amounts of information in a short period of time.” The most popular exposition teaching method is the lecture, which is a time efficient way of teaching concepts but is also a passive method of learning for students. Moore points out that the most effective lectures are relatively short, as it is difficult for students to focus on a lecture for more than 20 minutes. To make lectures more engaging, he recommends using variety – balancing the lecture by showing a movie clip, etc. Moore than goes into a thorough discussion on the power of questioning as a learning device. He discusses convergent questions, which initiate more focused answers and divergent questions, where the answers are open-ended. He then contrasts factual, empirical, productive, and evaluative questions, which trigger different levels of thinking from students.

I personally enjoyed the portion of the chapter on the art of questioning. The clear outline of different types of questions will be helpful in my classroom as I will be more aware of my questioning techniques. I agree with Moore in that questioning is an art as it takes refinement and a delicate touch, but has the potential to be so effective if mastered. I also found it interesting that lecturing is such a popular teaching method despite its flaws. To make another baseball analogy, the direct teaching method could be compared to the hitting coach who is an advocate of one specific kind of swing, and tailors his hitters to one uniform swing. On the other hand, indirect teaching could be compared to the hitting coach who analyzes each swing individually and adjusts swings based on individual abilities and tendencies. I will have to read the next chapter to see if I still agree with this comparison.

Thompson, Carla J. (2009). Preparation, practice, and performance: An empirical examination of the impact of Standards-based instruction on secondary students’ math and science achievement. Research in Education, 81, 53-62.

This study implements a three-stage model to analyze the effects of standards-based instruction (SBI) on student learning. Standards-based instruction strategies, as defined by Thompson, include “student self-assessment, inquiry-based activities, group-based projects, hands-on experiences, use of computer technologies, and the use of calculators.” The three-stage model – preparation, practice, and performance – is broken down as follows: preparation includes teacher professional development activities, practice is the classroom implementation of these trainings, and performance is the student outcomes which are Iowa Test of Basic Skills scores. Using data collected from the Oklahoma City public school district for the 2000-01 and 2001-02 school years, Thompson finds evidence that suggests SBI practices are significantly more effective on student learning than non-SBI practices. Using this model, Thompson found that standards-based practices such as inquiry, problem solving, co-operative learning, and use of hands on technology were all significant contributors. Non-SBI practices (lecture, independent seat work, quizzes, and text homework) were found to be ineffective in achieving student growth.

This article suggests that non-SBI practices (which currently dominate classrooms) need to be re-examined as they are ineffective in achieving significant academic gains. This is an alarming finding as a significant number of classrooms are non-SBI (47% of classrooms in the study, for instance, were found to be non-SBI classrooms). The data would suggest that nearly half of all classrooms are ineffective in achieving student growth. As the study states, however, there is a lack of empirical evidence on SBI practices and student growth and I would be interested in seeing the study across other states and regions to strengthen the evidence. In the mean time, I will be careful to consider SBI practices as I lesson plan.

Lemke, Robert J., Hoerandner, Claus M., & McMahon, Robert E. (2006). Student Assessments, Non-test Takers, and School Accountability. Education Economics, 14 (2), 235-250.

Lemke, et al. use statewide data from Illinois to examine the implications of using student test scores to evaluate public schools. Under the No Child Left Behind Act of 2002, heavy rewards and consequences are placed on students meeting or exceeding state standards. As a result, teachers and administrators have incentive to do whatever is necessary to achieve qualifying test scores. Because the law only requires schools to test 95% of their student population, there is room for schools to possibly game the system to achieve higher test scores.

Using a sample of 573 high schools from the state of Illinois, Lemke, et al. find evidence that accurate comparisons cannot be made across schools if only 95% of the students are required to take the test. Depending on the abilities of the 5% of student who do not take the test, there is too much room for variance and schools can potentially be assessed as passing when they are actually below state standards. According to Lemke, et al., for instance, 22% of all schools in their study could be mistakenly labeled as passing state standards if they were to take full advantage of the NCLB law.

This issue can be compared to the steroid problem in Major League Baseball. When the end product (examinations in schools; money or victories in baseball) has such great weight, there is incentive to cut corners to achieve the end result. The means are sacrificed for the ends. As found in this study, NCLB unintentionally results in schools encouraging students to be disabled learners, ease dropout rules, hold students back to postpone testing, teach to the test and sacrifice depth of analysis, etc. Much is sacrificed when the examination is the only point of focus.